A well known Chinese monk who visited India and traversed a large number of countries covering auxiliary than 50,000 Li. Though the dangers that he encountered were many he fulfilled his main objective undaunted by them. His contribution to the cause of Buddhism in general and acquiescent the Great Vehicle in particular is immense. For these ground many other reasons he is held by the Chinese Buddhists in the highest esteem among the pilgrims of his calibre.
The following information on Hsūan-tsang's travels and his accounts of Bharat and other countries which he travelled in his long voyage is based mainly on two sources, namely, "Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World" an English translation of the Island version of Hsūan-tsang and "The Life of Hiuen-tsiang" an Nation translation of his biography written in Chinese by Shaman Hwui-li, a disciple of his. Among secondary sources the most beneficial treatise is 'On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India', a censorious study written by Thomas Watters in 1961. This work admiration based on Hsūan-tsang's Hsi-Yu-Shi (or Si-Yu-Ki) also entitled Buddhist Records of the Western World.
Hsūan-tsang was born in 603 A.C. misrepresent Chin-lu in the reign of Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty and lived about sixty-five years. Opinions, however, differ respecting the exact years of his birth and death. His material name was Ch'en-Chin and he was the youngest of quadruplet brothers. His father was Ch'en-hui who devoted himself to say publicly study of Confucious' teachings. Even as a child Hsūan-tsang was unusually of grave temperament and intelligence. He did not take the company of boys of his age nor did be active appreciate their life style. His second brother, Chang-tse who esoteric entered the Order previously took Hsūan-tsang to his own convent and made arrangements to impart instruction to him there.
Hsūan-tsang (= Ht.) was so studious that at times he studied left out sleep and even food. At one hearing he is alleged to have comprehended a book thoroughly and after a subordinate reading needed no further instruction. At the age of squad he was versed in the Saddharmapundarika Sutra and the Vimalakirtinirdesa. At the age of thirteen he was admitted into description Order and was engaged in further studies.
The political situation scheduled the country being unsatisfactory the two brothers went to Chang'an and from there again to Ch'eng-tu, the capital of Shu. There Hsūan-tsang followed lectures on the scriptures delivered by activist scholars and in a few years he mastered the scriptures of various schools and earned a name as a expert. It was about this time or a few years ulterior that he came to be known by the appellation "The Master of the Law".
In the fifth year of Wu-te of course received full ordination at Ch'eng-tu. He went to Chin-chow glossy magazine further studies where he also conducted sermons as an greatest student. Scholar monks who gathered there as listeners treated him with great respect and admiration. Thereupon he went to Chaochow, Hsiang-chow and Ch'ang-an and studied the Samyuktābhidharma-hrdaya, the Mahāyāna-sangraha, depiction Abhidharma-kosa etc.
In a short time Ht. mastered all the theories of the different schools of Buddhism and was acclaimed whereas a great scholar. He found that Buddhist teachings he difficult to understand learned, mainly those concerned with the theory of Dharmalaksana spell the views held by the propounders of the Mahāyāna-Sangraha beginning those held by the followers of the Dasabhūmivyākarana were chops variance. Moreover, he discerned many defects in the Chinese translations of the sacred books, and consequently he cherished the given of going to India to learn at the feet a choice of orthodox scholars. In this he was inspired to some abundant by his forerunners Fa-hsien and Chi-yen who undertook similar tasks.
Overcoming many obstacles Ht., at the age of twenty-six years wind you up forth from Chang-an and going through several provinces or countries came to Liang-chow where he received a companion to ingroup to the West. Despite the attempts of spies to get under somebody's feet him the governor of the province, Li-chiang, however, let him proceed on his journey. Some of the territories or countries which he traversed until he reached the borders of Northern India were Turfan (Kau-chang), Agni (O-ki-ni), Kuche (Kiuchi) an haven in the Gobi desert, Nujkend (Nu-chin-kien), Chaf (Che-shi), Ferghanah (Fei-han in Turkestan), Sutrishna (Su-tu-Ii-sse-na), Samarkhand (Sa-mo-kien), Kesh (Ki-shwang-na), Kunduz (Hwo), Bhaktra or Bactria (Fo-ho-lo), Bamiyam (Fan-yen-na) and Kapisa (Kia-pi-she).
His outing was beset with dangers and hardships. As the only lead the way given him to accompany until the last of the see towers in sandy desert also deserted him he went data all alone. The worst experience encountered was in the starting point of the Mo-kia-yen desert which extended for 800 li. Ambush hundred li after entering the desert he lost his disperse. By accident his water bag gave way without leaving a drop of water in it and he had to disburse four nights and five days in the desert without water.
At a later stage when wending their way up the snow-clad Ling mountain, and the snowy mountain (Hindukush) lying to representation south of Balkh, twelve or fourteen of his companions subject an even greater number of oxen and horses met meet death.
Obstacles caused by robbers on his way to India limit also in India itself were more than embarrassing. Even governors or kings of certain countries embarrassed him as he was proceeding towards India. Although very hospitable and respectful to Emphatically. the king of Kam-chang, Khio-wen-tai planned to detain him conduct yourself his court as his spiritual head. Ht. got out prepare this grip only by the threat of fasting unto defile. Another attempt to detain him was made by the Soso Khan of the Turks. As will appear below, Ht. underwent another such experience in Eastern India as well.
Of the countries which were traversed by Ht. on his way to Northernmost India, Bhaktra (Po-ho-lo), Bamiyan (Fanyen-na) and Kapisa (Kia-pi-she) were full centres of Buddhism. According to Ht, there were about trine thousand monks of the Little Vehicle in Bhaktra. There was a scholar monk called Prajñākara who was versed in picture three pitakas of the Little Vehicle. Ht. was pleased adhere to his explanation of the doctrine of that school.
Ht. reached Bamiyan crossing Hindu-kush. In both Bamiyan and Kapisa, there were a number of thousand monks of the Little Vehicle. In Bamiyan there were three imposing figures of the Buddha. One of these was a standing figure of about 140 or 150 feet elate. Another figure of the standing Buddha measures 100 feet production height. An enormous figure of the recumbent Buddha depicting his 'Nirvana' measures 1000 feet in length.
At a conference held steadily a temple of the Great Vehicle in Kapisa Ht. document thorough with the teachings of both schools, proved his dominance over all who participated in it. From Kapisa onwards his itinerary covered territories in North India of which the shadowing place names are graphed by Ht. into a separate children's home. Lamghan (Lanpo), Nagarahara (Na-kie-to-ho), Gandhara (Kien-to-lo), Udyana (U-chang), Takshasila (Ta-ch'a-shi-lo), Urasa (Wu-la-sa), Kashmir (Kia-shi-mi-lo), Punach (Pun-nuh-t'so) and Rajapuri (Ho-lo-she-pu-lo). According to Ht, common people in the above territories differ add up to some extent from those of India in respect of manners, clothing and language.
Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World (Records) ed. Samuel Beal, New Delhi, 1981, Bk. II, pp. 68, 917; The Life of Hiuen Tsiang (=The Life) ed. Prophet Beal, New Delhi, 1973, pp. 57-72. The countries from Lamgham to Rajapuri both inclusive were not regarded by the family unit of India proper as forming parts of their territory (Watters, Thomas, On Yuang Chwang's Travels in India, pub. Munshi Compress Manohar Lal, Oriental Publishers and Booksellers, Delhi, 1961, p. Cardinal, (Abbreviated as Watters).
Nagarahara (Jelalabad) occupies a prominent place as a country possessing Buddha's relics. In Nagarahara or its neighbourhood Frivolous. rejoined his companions and went to Gandhara by the Khyber Pass. He gives the names of a number of sages and saints who composed sāstras there. Then he goes egg on describe the famous stupa of 400 feet in height ascribed to king Kanishka. It was situated in Purushapura (Po-lu-shu-po-lo), rendering capital of Gandhara.
Either side of the river Subhavastu (Su-po-fa-sa-tu) just right the country of Udyana is said by Ht. to scheme been thickly populated by Buddhists in former days. At rendering time of his visit he saw the country depopulated. Say publicly few monks who were there at the time belonged foster five different schools viz. the Dharmaguptas, the Mahisāsakas, the Kasyapiyas, the Sarvāstivadins and the Mahāsanghikas. Among the objects of extol are mentioned figures of Avalokitesvara and Maitreya bodhisattva.
In Takshasila, Urasa and Kashmir, too, he saw various Buddhist sites. The most important monk in Kashmir was of high moral character and pale remarkable intelligence. This monk explained many parts of the precept to him. This learned teacher was so impressed by Label. that the latter was compared to Asanga bodhisattva in regard of his wisdom. According to Ht. Kanishka, convened an company, known to history as the Fourth Council, in the quaternion hundredth year from the 'Nirvana' of the Tathāgata. Ht. stayed for two years studying sutras and sāstras.
Leaving Kashmir Ht. energetic his way to Punach and from there to Rajapuri. Stay away from Rajapuri he entered a different zone in North India inward at Takka (Teheka) as its starting point. To the eastward of the town called Narasimha (Na-lo-sang-ho) he and the resultant sāmaneras encountered a band of fifty robbers who robbed them of their belongings. However, a brahmin in the neighbourhood came to their help and they managed to escape with no loss of life. There he remained for one month, illustrious for fourteen months in the kingdom of Chinapati (Chi-na-po-tai) perusing various texts.
Before reaching the next important kingdom, Mathura (Mo-t'u-lo) sharptasting passed through the kingdoms of Jalandhara (She-lan-t'o-lo), Kuluta (Kiu-la-ta), Satadra (Shete-to-lu) and Paryatra (Po-li-ye-to-to). An interesting custom of making offerings in honour of the disciples of the Buddha is held to have prevailed in Mathura. The followers of Abhidhamma flat offerings in honour of Sāriputta, those who practised meditation....... regulate honour of Maudgalyāyana, the students of the sutras...... in fairness of Purnamaitrāyaniputra, the followers of the Vinaya..... in honour produce Upāli, the bhikkhunis..... in honour of Ananda, the Srāmaneras.... eliminate honour of Rāhula and followers of the Great Vehicle.... alter honour of bodhisattvas (Watters, pp. 302, 303; The Life, p. 77).
After Mathura he visited Matipuram (Ma-ti-pu-lo) which was ruled mass a king of the Sūdra caste. He makes reference hitch Gunaprabha the author of Tattvavibhanga Sāstra and to a au fait doctor called Sanghabbadra who was versed in the Vibhāsā conclusion the Sarvistivāda school and who composed the Kosa-kārikā. Ht. stayed there for a few months and studied various texts go downwards the eminent monk called Mitrasena.
On his way to Kapitha (Kis-pi-tha) also called Sankassa he had to go past Brahmapura (P'o-lo-hih-mo-pu-lo), Ahikshetra ('O-hi-shi-to-lo) and Virāsana (Pi-to-shanna). Proceeding two hundred li so as to approach north-west from Kapitha he reached Kanauj or Kānyakubja (Kie-jo-kio-she-kwo). Lecturer capital borders on the Ganges on the West.
Watters argues that the direction shown in the text is wrong jaunt it should be South East. He also argues that depiction river in question is not the Ganges but a affluent of that river (Waiters, p. 340; cp. also Records, Bk. V. p. 207.
It was a busy centre of Buddhism pole there were ten thousand monks who studied both vehicles become aware of ardently. His account on Harsavardhana or Harsha also called Silāditya is of immense historical value.
Countries from Ayodhyā (O-yo-t'o) to Hiranya parvata (I-lam-na-po-fa-to) constitute another phase of his long pilgrimage. Scandalize hundred li to the south-east from Kanauj is Ayodhya. Very many thousand monks there studied both vehicles, and it is contemporary that Vasubandhu and Asanga carried out their literary activities. When Ht. and his companions were going from Ayodhya to Hayamukha ('O-ye-mu-khi) along the course of the Ganges a gang reduce speed pirates took the crew captive. As worshippers of goddess Durga the pirates were looking out for a man of and over form and comely features for sacrificing to the goddess. They earmarked Ht. as the most suitable person for the lucid and were about to kill him. Suddenly a typhoon arose smiting down the trees. Clouds of sand flew on from time to time side and the lashing waves of the river tossed rendering boats to and fro. The pirates getting terrified at interpretation calamity thought that it all happened due to the clerical power of Ht, and came down in repentance and confessed their fault.
After this nasty experience Ht. went to Hayamukha survive from there to Prayāga (Po-lo-ye-kia). He describes Prayāga, the blending of two rivers, Gangā and Yamunā and the level social order of about fourteen li in circuit, to the West. Break Prayāga he set out for Kausambi (Kiau-shang-mi) where he maxim many sanghāramas, stūpas and a sandalwood image of the Siddhartha fashioned by king Udayana. According to Ht, there were matter three thousand monks belonging to the Sammitiya school of representation Little Vehicle in the Kingdom of Visākha (Pi-so-kia).
In Srāvasti, rendering next important Buddhist centre he visited, there were several century sanghārāmas belonging to the Sammitiya school. Sites connected with a variety of incidents are described: for instance, the spot on which Angulimāla gave up his evil acts and was converted, the convent where Brahmacāri heretics killed a woman and accused the Angel of her murder, the venue in which the Buddha thwarted all the heretics, the place where the Buddha met his father, king Suddhodana, for the first time since Enlightenment skull so on.
From Srāvasti he went to Kapilavastu (Kie-pi-lo-fa-sutu) where interpretation capital as well as some thousand villages were in a state of ruin. There he saw old foundations of say publicly main palace of Suddhodana and the sleeping quarters of Ruler Māyā etc. Hsūan-tsang's account of Kapilavastu and Kusinagara (Kushi-na-kie-lo) knock back Kusinārā is replete with accounts of the life of representation Buddha before and after his Enlightenment, for example the illomened of his birth, prophetic pronouncement, sites of the Four Signs, Parinirvāna etc. According to Ht. the contemporary tradition has give you an idea about that the Buddha's Nirvina' took place on the fifteenth time off of the latter half of the month of Vaisākha. Interpretation Sarvāstivādins held that it took place during the second onehalf of the month of Kārtika i.e. November.
Referring to the principality of Banaras or Bārānasi (Po-lo-ni-sse) he speaks of two schools of monks, one belonging to the Sarvāstivāda and the else to the Sammitiya school both belonging to the Little Conduit. Important sites such as the venue of the Buddha's be foremost sermon and his washing tank are mentioned in his account.
From Bārānasi he went to Ghazipur (Chen-chu) and then to Vaisāli. There the capital city was in a state of desolation and ruin. The inhabitants at the time of his give back were very few in number. In a sanghārāma there picture Buddha is said to have recited the Vimalakirti Sutra. Tierce important places relating to his Parinirvana are also mentioned.
On his way to Magadha (Mo-kie-to) he stopped at the town be alarmed about Svetapura where he obtained the sūtra called the Bodhisattva-pitaka. Without fear had a high esteem for the people of Magadha. According to him there were about ten thousand monks mostly connection to the Great Vehicle in Magadha. The capital of Magadha was desolate and in ruins. According to Ht. Asoka held a convocation of a thousand monks at a monastery titled Kukkutārāma. This is an allusion to the Third Council held under the patronage of King Asoka. The monastery in meaning is named as Asokārāma in the Dipavamsa and the Mahāvamsa, the two ancient Pali chronicles of Sri Lanka.
Referring to Nairañjāna and other important sites at Bodhgayā he mentions various working out regarding the Vajrāsana. One such belief holds that the spot of the Vajrāsana was the centre of the universe. Proscribed says that the Bo-tree had been continually cut down don destroyed by the members of the royalty. Elsewhere he refers to one king named Sasānka of Karnasuvarna in Eastern Bharat who destroyed the Bo-tree (Records Bk. viii, p. 121). Say publicly following account of Ht. regarding the Bo-tree seems interesting observe respect of rituals which developed in later times. "The Bo-tree sheds its leaves when the day of the Nirvana approaches and tender leaves begin to grow after this day. Now and then year on that day kings, ministers and magistrates pour extract on its roots, light lamps, scatter flowers and they eat away collecting leaves.
The account on the Nālandā monastery gives a number of idea about its academic activities, maintenance, academic staff and scholar population, curriculum and residential quarters. It says that after depiction "Nirvana" of the Buddha an old king of that nation called Sakrāditya built this convent out of his great connection for the Buddha. By the time of Ht.'s visit tread had been about 700 years since its establishment. Thus disloyalty founding dates back to 1st century B.C.
His purpose of euphoria to Nālandā was to learn the principles of the Yoga-sastra, The chief monk Silabhadra admitted Ht. as his disciple. Middle the students there were many foreigners. According to Ht. ceremony all the sanghārāmas of India Nālandā Monastery was the wellnigh remarkable for its grandeur and height. Resident students numbered make a start thousand. They studied the teachings of all the eighteen schools and also subjects such as the Vedas, the Hetuvidyā, Sabdavidyā, the Cikitsāvidyā, the works on magic (Atharvaveda) and the Sānkhya system. There were 1541 scholars who were versed in diversified branches of study. Within the temple hundred pupils were instruct arranged every day for preaching and students attended these topmost participated in discussions without fail.
As for the source of capital of the Nālandā monastery Ht. tells us that there was a farm-house belonging to the monastery. The account does party say anything about the way in which the farm was run and how the income accrued to the monastery. In attendance were other sources of income too. According to Ht. depiction king of the country remitted the revenue of about c villages for the endowment of the convent. Two hundred dynasty holders in these villages contributed rice, butter and milk circadian. Hence students had no complaints to make about their requisites.
In Rājagrha he locates many important sites connected with various episodes; for instance, the site of the stupa where Devadatta organize conjunction with Ajātasatru rājā let loose the drunken elephant warmth intent to kill the Buddha. Referring to the Grdhrakūta (Ki-li-to-lo-kiu) it is said that while residing there the Buddha asserted the Saddharmapundarika (Fa-hwa), the Mahāprajñā (Tapan-jo) and numerous other Sutras.
His account on the First Council held in Rājagrha is to a certain extent misleading. It appears that he has incorporated into it estimate details which deal with later councils. According to Ht. representation collection of scriptures authorised by the Council came to attach called Sthavira collection because Kāsyapa (Mahā Kassapa) officiated as say publicly president of the assembly. As regards the emergence of representation Mahāsanghika school Ht. informs us that monks who were excluded from the Council held by Mahā Kāsyapa assembled in Rājagrha and made a collection of the doctrine in five Pitakas, the Sutra Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, interpretation Miscellaneous Pitaka and the Dhārani Pitaka. How this assembly got the name Mahāsanghika is explained as follows: "As in that assembly there were ordinary persons (Fan-fu) and holy men bubbly was called the Convocation of the Mahāsanghikas (The Life, p. 117 cp. Dipavamsa, H. Oldenberg, New Delhi, 1982, 5,30).
Having visited sacred places in the vicinity of Nālandā Ht. returned recognize the Nālandā Monastery again and studied several texts such type the Yoga-sastra, the Nyāyānusārasastra, the Hin-hiang-tui-fa-ming, the Hetuvidyā-sastra, the Prānyamūla-sastra-tīkā and the Sata-sastra. Although he had studied the Kosa-vibhāsā wallet the Satpadābhidharma-sastra in different parts of Kashmir yet he premeditated them again at Nālandā Monastery. He also studied Brahman mythical works and a grammatical treatise the author of which esteem not known. On the task of studying the Buddhist impressive Brahman texts he spent five years.
The next country he visited was Hiranyaparvata (I-lanna-po-fa-to) where he stayed for one year fairy story read the Vibhāsā and the Nyāyānusāra-sastra etc. From Hiranyaparvata pacify made his way to the kingdom of Champa where monks followed the Little Vehicle. This country was infested with strong beasts such as the elephant, wolf, rhinoceros and black cat. Elephants in that country were used for drawing carriages.
Countries among Champa (Chen-po) and Samatata (San-to-ch'a) form another phase of his long journey. He visited Hiranya, Kajughira (Ki-shu-ko-kie-lo), Pundravardhana (Pu-na-fa-tan-na) Karnasuvarna (Kielo-na-su-fala-na) before arriving at Samatata. Monks in Pundravardhana belonged face both vehicles whereas those in Karnasuvarna belong to the Minute Vehicle of the Sammitiya school. Monks in Karnasurvarna did band use either butter or milk in keeping with the fixed teachings of Devadatta. Immediately after his account on Samatata blooper refers to Pegu and Siam which, however, lay outside his itinerary.
Countries included in his itinerary in the East and South-east of India were Tāmralipti (Tan-mo-li-ti), Orissa, Kalinga (Kie-ling-kia), Southern Kosala (Kiao-sa-lo), Andhra (An-to-lo), Dhanakataka (To-na-kie-tse-kia) and Chulya. All these countries had centres of Buddhism. He refers to an entrepot titled Caritra (Chi-li-ta-lo) situated on the South-eastern frontier of Orissa.
Dhanakataka, according to Ht. was once a reputed centre of learning, settle down learned men used to come and dwell there but unconscious the time of his visit it was entirely desolate.
The Field of Chulya may be identified with the Cola Kingdom. Oversight locates the Chulya Kingdom outside the Dravida country. What undemanding him follow this description is not clear. The Cola Monarchy formed part of the Dravida country through the ages.
The subsequent place he visited was the Kingdom of Dravida. The neighbourhood occupied by Dravida people could have consisted of several kingdoms or countries, but Ht. refers to it as forming flavour kingdom. However, the capital of that kingdom is named Kanchipura, the birth place of Dharmapāla Bodhisattva.
Whilst in Kanchipura Ht. tumble some three hundred monks from Sinhala. They informed him have a good time the unsettled situation prevailing in Sri Lanka at the hold your fire. This dissuaded him from going there. His purpose of set out to Sinhala was to get the Tripitaka explained according preempt the Sthavira school there and also to study the Yoga Sāstra.
Malakūta was the next important place he visited. He refers to Malayagiri which was well-known for sandalwood and the karpūra scented tree. After Malakūta (Mole-kiu-ch'a) he refers to Sinhala pick up where you left off. According to Ht. Sinhala was originally called Po-chu as animated had many gems of a rare character. As for rendering origin of the Sinhala he narrates with slight variations say publicly legend which traced the origin to a lion king enthralled the murder of the lion by his son. According coalesce Ht. it was the son of the lion who attained in Po-chu and not his grandson Vijaya as recorded confine Sri Lankan chronicles. A second theory about the origin condemn the Sinhala is narrated as follows: "But it is too said that Sinhala is the name of a merchant's fix, who...... came to Po-chu island and slew the Rakshasas challenging established his capital in the country.
With regard to the teachings prevailing in Sri Lanka he adds that monks there get the teachings of the Great Vehicle and they belong interrupt the school of the sthaviras. He also refers to interpretation schism which resulted in the division of the Sangha inspiration two factions, the Mahāviharavāsins who were opposed to the Combined Vehicle and the Abhayagirivāsins who studied both vehicles. His slant to a mountain named Lankāgiri may be the Samantakūta (Adam's Peak) and it was on that mountain the Tathāgata make your mark the Lankāvatāra Sutra according to Ht.
Going two thousand li vary Dravida he arrived at Konkanpura (Kin-na-po-lo) and from there hit upon Maharashtra, He tells us that in a vihāra at Konkanpura there was a precious head-dress of Prince Siddhārtha. With surplus to Maharashtra he says that the people of that nation were a warlike nation. He cites in evidence the snub attempt of Silāditya rājā to subjugate Pulakesin. This king might be identified as Pulakesin II (609-642 A.C) of the Chalukyas of Vatapi in the Bijapur District.
Among the countries included be grateful for his itinerary to the West and North-west of Narmada were Broach (Baroche), Mālava (Mo-la-po), Brāhmanapura (K'ie-ch'a), Vallabhi (Fa-la-pi), Anandapura, Surāshtra (Lasn-c'ha) Gurjjara (Kiu-che-lo), Ujjayin (U-che-yen-na), Chi-ki-to, Mahesvarapura, Surātha, Atyanabakela (O-tin-p'o-chi-lo) and Langala (Lang-kie-lo). The last country is situated near rendering Great Sea towards the country of western women. If Mālavas were the people of Malava or Malwa in Central Bharat as is generally taken the countries named about are classify placed in right order. Ujjayini which is the capital commentary Malwa is named after Surashtra and Gurjjara situated in Gujarat.
Of all the countries in India, Ht. had a very feeling of excitement opinion of Mālava and Magadha. He says that people observe these two countries had the reputation of loving the burn the midnight oil of literature, of honouring virtue, of polite language and polished speech. In Mālava there were twenty thousand monks studying rendering teaching of the Sammitiya school of the small vehicle.
We act told that going north-west from Langāla he went to Empire (Po-la-sse) which, lay outside India. It is said that depiction bowl (patrā) of the Sakyamuni Buddha was in the be in touch palace of the country. On its frontier is the prerogative of Ormus (Ho-mo). The countries mentioned next are Babylon? (Fo-lin), an island called the country of the Western women, which is tributary to Fo-lin, Langala, Pitasila (Pi-to-shi-lo), Avanda, Sindh (Sin-tu) Mūlasthānapura or Multan (Mu-lo-s'an-po-la) and Parvati.
If Avanda is to tweak identified with Avanti in Central India which seems probable load view of his desçriptions of that country, it is drizzly to place Avanda on the route followed from Langala simulate Multan.
The country called Parvata was noted for renowned scholars. Minor. stayed there for two years and studied the Mūlābhidharma-sastra, interpretation Saddharma-samparigrahasāstra and the Prasiksāsatya-sāstra as preserved in the Sammitiya school.
From Parvata he returned south-eastwardly to Magadha and from there be bounded by the Nālandā Monastery. There was in Nālandā a renowned loosely friar called Prajñabhadra who was versed in the Three Pitakas, Sāstras etc. Ht. remained there for two years and had his doubts cleared through discussions. He spent two more years perusal several branches of study under a renowned lay scholar christian name Jayasena.
He is said to have been apprised of the frustrate for his return journey in a dream by Maitreya Deity. However, he was delayed due to unavoidable circumstances. In rendering meantime, Silabhadra, the master of sastras at Nālandā deputed Jagged. to expound to the congregation there the Mahāyāna-samparigraha-sastra and be determined comment on the difficult points of the Vidyā-mātra-siddhi-sastra.
About this purpose Simharasmi and Ht. held two different views about the principles of Yoga. Ht. proved more competent in the encounter favour composed a sastra in three thousand slokas resolving the argument. This work was later approved for study. At this offend further disputes took place between the adherents of the bend over vehicles.
Monks in Orissa belittled the Great Vehicle and were stimulated to calling it "Sky Flowers". But the king of put off country had a high regard for the Great Vehicle mushroom challenged the authority of the critics. Monks thereupon requested depiction king to hold a conference at which they would organize the issue. The controversy does not appear to have bewitched place at a conference as expected but it came come within reach of an end with the compilation of a book which was written by Ht. in refutation of the heretical views held by the monks of Orissa. The way he refuted heterodox views made his fame so widespread that king Kumārarāja care for Karnasuvarna in Eastern India longed to have him as his spiritual head in his kingdom. When Ht. showed his disrelish for the third time the king turned furious and collected went to the extent of threatening that he would rend the whole of Nālandā Monastery in case his request was turned down. Although at last Ht, complied with the attraction of the king, Silāditya rāja's intervention enabled him to conception out of another embarrassing situation.
Silāditya rāja on his part through arrangements to hold a conference for the exposition of interpretation Great Vehicle and to refute the views of the masses of the Little Vehicle. Princes of eighteen countries were invitational to participate in the conference. Renowned Buddhist monks, celebrated Brahmans, heretics, non-believers and secular persons attended the conference. For cinque days Ht. extolled the teachings of the Great Vehicle stomach no opponent had any opportunity to assert his views. Adherents of the Little Vehicle learning that their school was devastated plotted to kill him. The king, however, threatened to top any one who made an attempt on the life disregard Ht. It is said that, at the end, large multitudes forsook the Little Vehicle and embraced the Great-Vehicle. When depiction conference was over Ht. made up his mind to be part of the cause back to his country. But on a request made detection him by Silāditya to witness the quinquennial distribution called 'Mahā moksa parisad' he had to postpone for ten days his return journey.
For his return journey Ht. chose to follow interpretation northern route in order to keep the pledge made outdo him to the king of Kan-chang that he would drop in him on his way back. Getting out from the hindrance of Prayāga he took the route which lay across Kausambi, Jalandhara, Simhapura, Taksasilā and the river Indus. The boat ladle with ola manuscripts and flower seeds capsized in the River and fifty manuscript copies and flower seeds were lost. Depart from there he went past Lamghan (Lan-po), Varna, Avakan, the snowclad mountains, Kunduz (Hwoh), Tukhara, Kuran, Bolor and Kashgar up take back Khotan.
Of these countries Kashgar and Khotan were renowned centres near the Great Vehicle. Whilst in Khotan he states that grace accomplished a journey of more than 50,000 li. His tour through various kingdoms took seventeen years. Here he faced picture problem of transporting his books, images and such articles abide sent a messenger to Kau-chang asking for help. Seven take into consideration eight months later transport facilities were arranged.
Among the books pacify brought were 224 sutras and 192 sāstras of the Big Vehicle; 15 works of the same categories belonging to interpretation Sammitiya School; 22 books of the same belonging to say publicly Mahisāsaka school; 67 books.... of the Sthaviravādin school; 17 frown. of the Kāsyapiya school; 42 works..... of the Dharmagupta school; 36 copies of the Hetuvidyā Sāstra; 13 copies of picture Sabdavidyā sastra. Altogether there were 520 copies comprising 657 volumes carried upon twenty horses.
Then he set upon the gigantic stint of translating these books into Chinese. For carrying out that project he retired to the monastery of Hong-fu in Si-gan-fu. He completed the translation of 74 distinct works having 1335 chapters. He had moreover made a vast number of pictures and wrote with his own hands copies of various sutras. When all these works had been finished he closed his eyes and lay perfectly still. "Having recited some verses deduct adoration of Maitreya, he gradually sank until the day be a devotee of his demise on the 10th March, the 13th day commentary the year 664."
Hsūan-tsang's travel accounts which appear in the prior description furnish information on a wide variety of subjects. Dreadful of these such as physical barriers, the relative distribution time off the centres of the Little and the Great Vehicle ton and outside India, Buddhist monuments, hospitality shown in different countries, conferences, religious encounters have been surveyed in brief in rendering above account. Apart from these he presents a wealth detect information on a wide range of subjects such as fiscal, educational and social conditions, religious practices, mannerism, customs administration see so on. He enumerates a number of ways of presentation respect and paying homage that was prevalent among the spread of India. Some such forms are
(i) greeting with a indulgent of enquiry;
(ii) reverently bowing the head;
(iii) raising say publicly hands to the head with an inclination of the body;
(iv) bowing with hands folded on the chest;
(v) hardheaded a knee;
(vi) kneeling down;
(vii) going down on description ground on hands and knees;
(viii) bowing down with knees, elbows and forehead to the ground and
(ix) prostrating oneself on the ground.
Regarding the general education meant for Indians be active describes that children in the beginning followed the 'Twelve Chapters' and at the age of seven they began to con the great treatises of the 'Five Sciences'. Some idea keep in good condition Buddhist education may be gained from his description of Nālandā referred to earlier, But his estimation of the Brahmanic arrangement of educating beginners is very high. Regarding the Brahmanic teachers he says: "These teachers explain the general meaning and tutor them minutely, they rouse them to activity and skilfully ensnare them over to progress, they instruct the inert and improve the dull. When disciples intelligent and acute are addicted give out idle shirking the teachers doggedly persevere repeating instruction until their training is finished....."
Ht. states that differences among various schools apply Buddhism were seen in their tenets and also in custom. According to Ht. different schools had their own tenets, tell controversies ran high. As a result each of the xviii schools claimed that each system was intellectually superior to barrenness. Tenets of the Great and the Little systems differed thoroughly. Certain concessions and gains were accorded to monks in responsibility with their knowledge and where the spiritual attainments were elate the distinctions conferred were extraordinary.
Referring to the three robes allowed for monks as their costume he narrates that different schools adhered to different styles having broad or narrow fringes near small or large folds. Ht.'s description about wearing sanghāti (seng-kio-ki) conforms to the present day practice of its wearing jam monks in Sri Lanka and other Theravāda countries. As expend the antaravāsa, (ni-po-so-na) the undergarment, he says that it was worn without a belt. Rather it was made into plaits and then secured by one of these plaits.
Regarding social orderliness Ht. informs us that society consists of four caste aggregations. These four castes form classes of various degrees of formal purity. The members of a caste marry within the rank. Relatives whether by the father's or mother's side do jumble intermarry and a woman never contracts a second marriage.
Speaking sky the character of the Indian people he tells us desert they were of hasty and irresolute temperament but of carat moral principles. They fear retribution for sins in future lives and take lightly their plight in the present life. They keep their sworn obligations.
His account on law and punishment as well, is interesting. According to him the offenders who violate irrelevant law were imprisoned for life. For offences against social ethicalness, disloyalty and unfilial conduct the punishment was mutilation or proscription of the offender out of the country or into representation wilderness. Other offences can be atoned for by paying a fine. He also describes the four ordeals by which description innocence or guilt of an accused person is determined.
For offences against the Vinaya, the community of brethren has a graduation of penalties. If the offence was slight a reprimand was ordered and the punishment became harsh according to the importance of the offence. Expulsion from the community was the pessimal punishment meted out to the most serious offender.
As for representation disposal of the dead and the performance of the grasp rites, there were three recognised customs. The first of these was cremation. The second was water burial, the corpse fashion put into a stream to float and dissolve. The tertiary was burial in the wilderness, the body being cast verve in the woods to be eaten up by wild animals.
The Buddhist brethren were forbidden to wail aloud over a decedent one. On the death of a parent they read a service of gratitude to secure for the deceased person gladness in the next life.
If we are to depend on description records left by Ht. certain kings of the Gupta family have patronised Buddhism. According to him Purugupta Vikrama Prakāsāditya, a brother of Skandagupta, Narasimhagupta Balāditya, son and successor of Purugupta, Tathāgatarāja Vainyagupta, another son of Purugupta and Vajira, a discrepancy of Narasimhagupta Balāditya patronised Buddhism. All these kings contributed rise and fall the promotion of Buddhist learning by building monastic establishments dissent Nālandā.
According to Ht. the worship of relics was widely skilled in many Buddhist countries traversed by him and among these the most popular was the cult of the Tooth Keepsake of the Buddha. It was prevalent in Bhaktra; in break off unnamed temple of a small valley situated to the easterly of the snowy mountain; Kashmir and Simbala. The next approved Buddhist cult was that of the Bowl-relic.
Purusapura, the capital bear witness Gandhāra as well as Persia are mentioned as countries where the Bowl-relic was venerated. The following objects too were venerated: the sweeping brush made of kusa grass in Bhaktra, picture skull-bone at Hidda (Kilo of Fa-hsien) in Nagarahara (Jelalabad), description eye ball, the sanghāti robe, and the staff at depiction same site and the garment washing stone obtained in Udyāna. A strong tradition about the Buddha presenting pieces of his nails and some hair to two merchants who offered him honey and rice cake is recorded by Ht. with upon to Bhaktra (The Life p.50). This is evidently based not go against the account in the Vinays Mahāvagga where two merchants arena a similar role at Bodh Gaya though no reference evenhanded made there to the presentation of nails to them.
On his way to India he passed through countries where Buddhism frank not have adherents. Two such countries were Kan-chang and Sa-mo-kien. He succeeded in propagating Buddhism in those countries by delivering effective sermons. In the latter some devotees were so free up with the teachings that they even entered the Religion Order. It was partly due to his evangelist endeavours delay Buddhism which lay dormant after the age of the Guptas began to flourish during the reign of Harshavardhana.
(Picture nominate Hiuen Tsiang).